Eligibility for PhD in IITs for engineering students: For admission to the PhD Programme in Engineering departments, a candidate must satisfy one of the following criteria: i) Master’s degree in Engineering/Technology/Medical Sciences/Veterinary Sciences/Pharmacy in a relevant area with minimum Cumulative Performance Index (CPI) of 6.5 or 60% of marks. ii) Bachelor’s degree in Engineering/Technology/Medical Sciences in a relevant area with a minimum CPI of 7.5 or 70% of marks. IIT Mumbai Ph. D program details: Click here: http://www.iitb.ac.in/rsrchprgm.html IIT Delhi Ph. D program details: Click here; http://www.iitd.ac.in/pgadmission/ IIT Kanpur Ph. D Program details: Click here; http://www.iitk.ac.in/bsbe/Admission.html IIT madras Ph.D Program details: Click Here; http://www.iitm.ac.in/images/stories/iitm/msphdbrochurenew.pdf IIT Kharagpur Ph. D program details: Click here: http://www.iitkgp.ac.in/topfiles/phd.php IIT Roorkee Ph.D program details; Click here; http://www.iitr.ac.in/admissions/uploads/File/2009/PhD/Ph_D_%20and%20Post-Doctoral%20Fellowship%20Information%20Brochure.pdf
Financial Support (For regular students, who are Indian nationals) 1. Institute assistantships will be available to eligible students as per prevailing (MHRD, GOI) norms, as applicable from time to time. The present rates of assistantships are as below: Qualifying Degree Assistantship Rates
BE/BTech/MSc equivalent with valid GATE score, CEED score [for Dept. of Design] above the prescribed cut off level/NET qualification [GATE/CEED score requirement is exempted for students with Bachelor’s degree from an Indian Institute of Technology (IIT) with minimum CPI of 8.0] 1st & 2nd Year : Rs.12,000/- p.m. 3rd t & 4th Year : Rs.14,000/- p.m. 5th Year : Rs.15,000/- p.m.
ME / MTech or equivalent 1st & 2nd Year: Rs.14,000/- p.m. 3rd t & 4th Year #: Rs.15,000/- p.m.
Note:# No assistantship will be available beyond 4th year for this category of students. 2. Assistantships from external funding organizations will be available as per terms and conditions of the concerned funding organizations. 3. Students receiving assistantships from the Institute or fellowships from any other funding agencies, are required to perform academic duties as per prevailing norms. 4. The continuation of the assistantship/fellowship is subject to satisfactory performance of the assigned duties and satisfactory progress of the student in the PhD Programme.
1. General information on science and its interface with society to test the candidate’s awareness of science, aptitude of scientific and quantitative reasonsing.
2. COMMON ELEMENTRY COMPUTER SCIENCE ( Applicable to all candidates offering subject areas ).
3. History of development of computers, Mainframe, Mini, Micro’s and Super Computer Systems.
4. General awareness of computer Hardware i..e. CPU and other peripheral devices ( input / output and auxiliary storage devices ).
5. Basic knowledge of computer systems, software and programming languages i.e. Machine language, Assembly language and higher level language.
6. General awareness of popular commercial software packages like LOTUS, DBASE, WORDSTAR, other Scientific application packages.
PAPER I – SECTION B
1. Cell Biology : Structure and function of cells and intracellular organelies ( of both prokaryotes and eukaryotes ) : mechanism of cell division including ( mitosis and meiosis ) and cell differentiation : Cell – cell interaction ; Malignant growth ; Immune response ; Dosage compensation and mechanism of sex determination.
2. Biochemistry : Structure of atoms, molecules and chemical bonds. Principles of physical chemistry : Thermodynamics, Kinetics, dissociation and association constants ; Nucleic acid structure, genetic code, replication, transcription and translation : Structure, function and metabolism of carbohydrates, lipids and proteins ; Enzymes and coenzyme ; Respiration and photosynthesis.
3. Physology : Response to stress : Active transport across membranes ; Plant and animal hormones ; Nutrition ( including vitamins ) ; Reproduction in plants, microbes and animals.
4. Genetics : Principles of Mendelian inheritance, chromosome structure and function ; Gene Structure and regulation of gene expression. Linkage and genetic mapping ; Extrachromosomal inheritance ( episomes, mitochondria and chloraplasts ) ; Mutation : DNA damage and repair, chromosome aberration : Transposons ; Sex-linked inheritance and genetic disorders ; Somatic cell genetics ; Genome organization ( in both prokaryotes and eukaryotes ).
5. Evolutionary Biology : Origin of life ( including aspects of prebiotic environment and molecular evolution ) ; Concepts of evolution ; Theories of organic evolution ; Mechanisms of speciation ; Hardyweinberg genetic equilibrium, genetic polymorphism and selection ; Origin and evolution of economically important microbes, plants and animals.
6. Environmental Biology : Concept and dynamics of ecosystem, components, food chain and energy flow, productivity and biogeochemical cycles ; Types of ecosystems, Population ecology and biological control ; Community structure and organization ; Environmental pollution ; Sustainable development ; Economic importance of microbes, plants and animals.
7. Biodiversity and Taxonomy : Species concept, Biological nomenclature theories of biological classification, Structural biochemical and molecular systematics ; DNA finger printing, numerical taxonomy, Biodiversity, characterization, generation maintenance and loss : Magnitude and distribution of biodiversity, economic value, wildlife biology, conservation strategies, cryopreservation.
PAPER II
1. Principles of Taxonomy as applied to the systamics and Classification of Plant Kingdom : Taxonomic structure ; Biosystematics ; Plant geography ; Floristics.
2. Patterns of variation in morphology and life history in plants ; Broad outlines of classification AND evolutionary trends among algae, fungi, bryophytes and pteridophytes ; Principles of palaeobotany ; Economic importance of algae, fungi and lichens.
3. Comparative analomy and developmental morphology of gymnosperms and anglosperms : Histochemical and ultrastructural aspects of development ; Differentiation and morphogenesis.
4. Androgensis and gynogenesis ; Breeding system ; Pollination biology ; structural and functional aspects of polien and pistil ; Male sterility ; Seil and inter-specific incompatibility ; Fertilization ; Embryo and seed development.
5. Plants and civilization ; Centres of origin and gene diversity ; Botany, utilization, cultivation and improvement of plants of food, drug, fibre and industrial values ; Unexploited plants of potential economic value ; Plants as a source of renewable energy ; Genetic resources and their conservation.
6. Water Relation ; Mineral nutrition ; Photosynthesis and photorespiration ; Nitrogen, Phosphorous and Sulphur metabolism ; Stomatal physiology ; Source and sink relationship.
7. Physiology and biochemistry and seed dormancy and germination ; Hormonal regulation of growth and development ; Photoregulation ; Growth responses, Physiology of flowering ; Senescence.
8. Principles of plant breeding ; Important conventional methods of breeding self and cross pollinated and vegetatively propagated crops ; Non-conventional methods ; Polyploidy : Genetic variability ; Plant diseases and defensive mechanisms.
9. Principles of taxonomy as applied to the systematics and classification of the animal kingdom ; Classification and interrelationship amongst the major invertebrate phyla ; Minor invertebrate phyla, Functional anatomy of the nonchordates ; Larval forms and their evolutionary significance.
10. Classification and comparative anatomy of protochordates and chordates ; Origin, evolution and distribution of chordates groups : Adaptive radiation.
11. History of mammalian organ systems, nutrition, digestion and absorption ; Circulation ( open and closed circular, lymphatic systems, blood composition and function ) ; Muscular contraction and electric organs ; Excretion and osmoregulation : Nerve conduction and neurotransmitters ; major sense organs and receptors; Homeostatic (neural and hormonal) ; Bioluminescence ;
12. Gametogenesis in animals : Molecular events during fertilization, Cieavage patterns and fate maps, Concepts of determination, competence and induction, totipotency and nuclear transfer experiments : Cell differentiation and differential gene activity ; Morphogenetic determinants in egg cytoplasm ; Role of maternal contributions in early embryonic development ; Genetic regulations of early embryonic development in Drosophila ; Homeotic genes.
13. Feeding, learning, social and sexual behavior of animals ; Parental care; Circulation rhythms ; Mimicry ; Migration of fishes and birds ; Sociobiology; Physiological adaptation at high altitude.
14. Important human and veterinary parasites ( protozoans and halminths ) ; Life cycle and biology of Plasmodium, Trypanosoma ; Ascans, Wuchereria, Fasciola, Schistosoma and Leishmania ; Molecular, cellular and physiological basis of host – parasite interactions.
15. Arthropodsand vectors of human diseases ( mosquitoes, lice, flies and tickes ) ; Mode of transmission of pathogens by vectors ; Chemical, biological and environmental control of anthropoid vectors ; Biology and control of chief insect pests of agricultural importance ; Plant host-insect interaction, insect pest management ; useful insects : Silkworm.
16. The law of DNA constancy and C-value paradox : Numerical, and structural changes in chromosomes ; Molecular basis of spontaneous and induced mutations and their role in evolution ; Environmental mutagenesis and toxicity testing ; Population genetics.
17. Structure of pro-and eukaryotic cells ; membrane structure and function ; Intracellular compartments, proteinsorting, secretory and endocytic pathways ; Cyloskeleton ; Nucleus ; Mitochondria and chloroplasts and their genetic organization ; cell cycle ; Structure and organization of chromatin, polytene and lamphrush chromosomes ; Dosage compensation and sex determination and sex-linked inheritance.
18. Interactions between environment and biota ; Concept of habitat and ecological niches ; Limiting factor ; Energy flow, food chain, food web and tropic levels ; Ecological pyramids and recycling, biotic community – concept, structure, dominance, fluctuation and succession ; N. P. C. and S cycles in nature.
19. Ecosystem dynamics and management ; Stability and complexity of ecosystems ; Speciation and extinctions ; Environmental impact assessment, Principles of conservation ; Conservation strategies ; Sustainable development.
20. Physico-chemical properties of water ; Kinds of acquatic habitats ( fresh water and marine ); Distribution of and impact of environmental factors on the aquatic biota ; Productivity mineral cycles and biodegradation in different aquatic ecosystems ; Fish and Fisheries of India with respect to the management of estuarine, coastal water systems and man-made reservoirs ; Biology and ecology of reservoirs.
21. Structure, classification, genetics, reproduction and physiology of bacteria and viruses ( of bacteria, plants and animals ) ; Mycoplasma protozoa and yeast ( a general accounts ).
22. Microbial fermentation ; Antibiotics, organic acids and vitamins ; Microbes in decomposition and recycling processes ; Symbiotic and asymblotic N2 – fixation ; Microbiology of water, air, soil and sewage ; Microbes as pathological agents in plants, animals and man ; General design and applications of a biofermenter. Biofertilizer.
23. Antigen : Structure and functions of different clauses of immunoglobulins ; Primary and secondary immune response ; Lymphocytes and accessory cells ; Humoral and cell mediated immunity ; MHC ; Mechanism of immune response and generation of immunological diversity ; Genetic ______ of immune response ; Elector mechanisms ; Applications of immunological techniques.
24. Enzyme Kinetics ( negative and positive cooperativity ) ; Regulation of enzymatic activity ; Active sites ; Coenzymes ; Activators and inhibitors, isoenzymes, allosteric enzymes, Ribozyme and abzyme.
25. Van der Waal’s electrostatic, hydrogen bonding and hydrophobic interaction ; Primary structure and proteins and nucleic acids ; Conformation of proteins and polypeptides ( secondary Tartiary quaternary and domain structure ); Reverse turns and Ramachandran plot ; Structural polymorphism of DNA, RNA and three dimensional structure of tRNA ; Structure of carbohydrates, polysacohanides, glyceproteins and peptide – glycans ; Helixcoli transition ; Energy terms in biopolymer conformational calculation.
26. Glycolysis and TCA cycle ; Glycogen breakdown and synthesis ; Gluconeogenesis ; Interconversion of hexoses and pentoses ; Amino acid metabolism ; Coordinated control of metabolism ; Biosynthesis of purines and pyrimidinas ; Oxidation of lipids ; Biosynthesis of fatty acids ; Trigfycandes ; Phospholipids ; Sterols.
27. Energy metabolism ( concept of free energy ) ; Thermodynamic principles in biology ; Energy rich bonds ; Weak interactions ; Coupled reactions and oxidative phosphorylations ; Group transfer ; Biological energy transducers ; Bioenergietics.
28. Fine structure of gene, Eukaryotic genome organization ( structure of chromalin ; coding and non coding sequences, satellite DNA ) ; DNA damage and repair, DNA replication, amplification and rearrangements.
29. Organization of transcriptional units ; Mechanism of transcription of prokaryotes and eukaryotes ; RNA processing ( capping, polyadenylation, splicing, introns and exons ) ; Ribonuleoproteins, structure of mRNA ; Genetic code and protein synthesis.
30. Regulation of gene expression in pro and eukaryotes ; Attenuation and antitermination ; Operon concept ; DNA methylation ; Heterochromatization, Transposition ; Regulatory sequences and transacting factors ; Environmental regulation of gene expression.
31. Biochemistry and molecular biology of cancer ; Oncongenes ; Chemical carcinogenesis ; Genetic and metabolic disorders : Hormonal imbalances ; Drug metabolism and detoxification ; Genetic load and genetic counseling.
32. Lysogeny and lytic cycle in bacteriophages ; Bacterial transformation ; Host cell restriction ; Transduction ; Complementation ; Molecular recombination ; DNA ligases ; Topoisomarases ; Gyrases ; Methylases ; Nucleases ; Restriction endonucleases ; Plasmids and bacteriophage base vectors for cDNA and genomic libraries.
33. Principles and methods of genetic engineering and Gene targeting ; Applications in agriculture, health and industry.
34. Cell and tissue culture in plants and animals ; Primary culture ; Cell line ; Cell ciones ; Cellus cultures ; Somaclonal variation ; Micropropagation ; Somatic embryogenesis ; Haploidy ; Protoplast fusion and somatic hydridization ; Cybrides ; Genetransfer methods in plants and in animals; Transgenic biology ; Allopheny ; Artificial seeds ; Hybridoma technology.
35. Structure and organization of membranes Glycoconjugates and proteins in membrane systems ; Ion transport, Na + / K + ATPase ; Molecular basis of signal transduction in bacteria, plants and animals. Model membranes.
36. Principles and application of light, phase contrast, fluorescence, scanning and transmission electron microscopy, Cytophotometry and flow cytometry, fixation and staining.
37. Principles and applications of gel-filtration, ion-exchange and affinity chromatography ; Thin layer and gas chromatography ; High pressure liquid ( HPLC ) chromatography ; Electrophoresis and electrofocussing ; Ultracentrifugation ( velocity and buoyant).
38. Principles and techniques of nucleic acid hybridization and Cot curves ; Sequencing of Proteins and nucleic acids ; Southern, Northern and South-Western blotting techniques ; Polymerase chain reaction ; Methods for measuring nucleic acid and protein interactions.
39. Principles of biophysical methods used for analysis of biopolymer structure, X-ray diffraction, fluorescence, UV, GRO, CO, Visible, NMR and ESR spectroscopy ; Hydrodynamic methods, Atomic absorption and plasma emission spectroscopy.
40. Principles and applications of tracer techniques in biology ; Radiation dosimetry ; Radioactive isotopes and half life of isotopes ; Effect of radiation on biological system ; Autoradiography ; Cerenkoy radiation ; Liquid spectrometry.
41. Principles and practice of statistical methods in biological research ; samples and populations ; Basic statistics – average, statistics of dispersion, coefficient of variation ; Standard error ; Confidence limits ; Probability distributions binomial, Poisson and normal ; Tests of statistical significance ; Simple correlation of regression ; Analysis of variance.
In this article I am going to discuss the test taking strategies for CSIR NET JRF Life sciences (Biotechnology) students. It has been long on the demand list from the student side for tips on this topic. So I am going to reveal it here.
Syllabus
If you take a quick look at the syllabus for CSIR NET JRF life sciences, you would notice that not only topics related to Biotechnology but whole of the life sciences has been included. Well that is unfair on the syllabus part but yes when it is common to all life sciences candidates it does makes sense.
Try to cover almost of the entire syllabus, but it’s obviously difficult, in that case you may restrict yourself to certain topics which appear interesting to you. But remember you must have knowledge of the topic to its minute levels. This will help you in clearing your interview, I remember when I had interview in IISC Bangalore, I was asked to choose my strongest topic & questions were asked in a brain storming forty five minute session.
Some of the topics related to botany or zoology may appear boring to you, in that case try to first make your Biotech topics stronger, then only move to these topics.
Preparation
Ideally the preparation should start Six months before exam, but that means you must stick to a particular schedule. If you are an appearing candidate I would suggest starting in the third semester itself (provided if you want to clear JRF).
Solve sample papers as much as you can, well that is a typical advice to any competition aspirant, I would suggest to get in to the details ( theory part) as soon as you come through the questions.
If you are a appearing candidate, then try to co-relate the questions from the theory part, Remember, it doesn’t matter how much your university awards you, rather a JRF would Really MATTER, so devote as much time as possible to get in to the subjects & concepts. They emphasize concepts rather than mugging up & vomiting data.
Exam
Again comes the question which one to stress for more, Paper 1 or 2? Well I would suggest you to concentrate more on paper 2 but remember passing in Paper 1 is very important, so make sure you strike a fair balance.
During exam- I would suggest not to panic rather stick to your basics while answering, coz most questions are from basics but we tend to complicate it.
Try not to solve all questions rather try to gain confidence by answering questions which you know first in case of paper 1. In paper 2 just cram through the paper what it contains and how much you know, don’t panic if you don’t Know, try to stick to the word limit while answering, be to the point and quote examples
How to Avoid a Disaster?
Though we cannot say anything about the cut off marks, experience tells that one has to score well in Paper I to get JRF. At the same time leave your thoughts about the performance in the Paper I back and do well in the afternoon session with a clear and sound mind. Some may have a tendency to throw it up feeling dejected about your performance during the day. Let us wait the results to come before making disastrous assumptions to spoil your day. Also be cool in your approach to the exam and never give up during the examination by doing things like answering all the multiple choice questions randomly based on luck feeling dejected of your performance. There is plenty of time to be prepared and perform well. And from experience, many have come out successfully even after believing that they did perform very poorly.
In examination with objective type multiple choice questions (MCQs), there is a tendency called the ‘Red Wire Syndrome’ which means to answer all questions whether one knows the correct answer or not. If we can classify the questions into three categories, viz. 1) Sure, 2) Not So Sure and 3) Never, indicating whether one knows the correct answer, possible but some doubt still prevails and almost impossible, respectively. The ‘red wire syndrome’ means that one will have tendency to answer all the questions, which is disastrous, just like a child who touches a ‘red hot wire’ seeing its beauty. The key to success lies in answering all the ‘Sure’ types, and leaving out the ‘Never’ types. It is imperative to learn the art of intelligent guessing to answer the type 2. This evidently comes from one’s experience and basic knowledge of the subject. So never ever find it insulting to go back to your basics (at least refer to some of the basic books in the list below). So never forget practice well using previous question papers of NET JRF to make you come out with flying colors.
After Exam
Well your work is not yet over, try to recollect the questions and write it down, if that is not possible try to demarcate the topics which were stressed specifically, this would of immense help in case if you do not clear.
How to utilize INTERNET for CSIR UGC NET EXAM?
Well the answer lies in exploiting this resource as much as possible to gain subject material. I would suggest joining CSIR NET JRF discussion groups to interact with other aspirants and ask questions.
On-line guide to scientific publication Introduction Initial planning Producing the outline Producing the manuscript Finishing touches Submitting the manuscript The refereeing and publishing process Producing the manuscript Style | Introduction |Materials and methods | Results | Discussion | Conclusions Style You must remember that in writing a scientific paper you are not a journalist or a novelist. You must adhere to strict principles not only of layout (as we have seen) but also of style. The principles of Occam’s Razor is often cited as the approach which should be undertaken. Occam was a 14th Century philosopher who stressed the Aristotelian principle that entities must not be multiplied beyond what is necessary. In other words a problem should be stated in its basic and simplest terms. This approach should be rigorously applied to achieve the standard of terseness, conciseness, succinctness, comprehensiveness, coherence, relevance and easy readability which must be the author’s aim throughout the paper. Part of this process involves making sure you know the word limit of the journal you are aiming at for publication. Once you know it, stick to it. If you can't then contact the editor to discuss. If you don't then you run the very real risk of your manuscript being rejected without ever being read! The text should be easy to read and comprehend by the educated general reader. Therefore, it should be written in straight plain English. Editors are well aware that English is not the native tongue of many authors and every effort is made to accommodate the natural problems of language translation. However, regardless of the ability of the author to translate their thought into English there are many basic principles which apply to writing scientific papers. Sentences should be as short and simple as feasible, logically structured and not convoluted, or long-winded. The use of very long and uncommon terminology, flashy 'buzz' words, non-essential or pretentious professional jargon and overworked metaphors and clichés must be avoided and restricted to cases where the use serves special purposes. Unusual or newly created terms must be adequately defined and explained. Your readers want to understand what they are reading in the minimum of time. Most experienced readers develop a style of reading articles in journals that helps them decide what is worth reading in greater detail. If you know how people read, you can write in a way that ensures that you convey your main message effectively.
Title:More people will read the title than any other part of your publication. The title will be reproduced in the table of contents. It will be used by librarians and by most abstracting services. Readers use the title to decide whether to read further. If the title doesn't grab their attention, they are unlikely to read any further. Abstract: If the title is interesting, the reader will probably read the abstract. Recent surveys indicate that more than 80% of researchers only ever read abstracts. In other words, only a minority ever read the full paper. Introduction: Those who progress beyond the abstract will pay most attention to the first and last paragraphs of the introduction. Materials and methods, and results sections: Most readers ignore these sections. These sections are read by referees, by students, and researchers engaged in similar work. Occasionally they are read by those writing critical reviews of the literature. Discussion: As with the introduction, readers pay greatest attention to the first and last paragraphs of the discussion. Few, other than graduate students, the editor and referees, will look at anything else that you've written in the paper. Many readers will, however, also look at the references to see whether you have cited their papers - although most will deny that they do so. This is the way that most of us consume the literature. With so much published every day, we have little choice. You should try using this technique of 'speed reading'. You will be surprised how efficient a method it is for screening the literature for those papers that really are worth spending time on. Make sure when you write that the most important message is contained in those parts of the paper that are most likely to be read by a large number of people. And make sure each paragraph starts with the key message sentence.
Introduction This part, if included, combines the information which in a book or report is contained in a preface or foreword with essential information on the international, national and local institutional framework (political, administrative, financial, infrastructural, personal) within which the project originated and progressed, the purpose for which the project was originally conceived, approved, planned and executed. It may include information on resources used and on supporting and funding institutions. The introduction should be as brief and focussed as possible without loss of information which is essential for the assessment of the political, institutional and administrative background of the paper. The idea of the introduction is to lead the reader into your work so that by the time you discuss your activities the reader can understand what you are doing and why. To complete the introduction it is worthwhile returning to the last section on writing the abstract and expanding on each of the sections listed. Situation In this part, project-related and relevant conditions of nature (environment, resources, ecology) and culture (technology, economics, political, social, ethnic etc.) that directly and essentially form the specific scenario within which the project has been designed and implemented, are described. The situation description precedes and prepares the analysis, identification and definition of the problems with which the paper is concerned or the project intends to solve. It must be clearly understood and seen in the text that the situation per se is not the problem, but is the condition on which the problem is founded. The situation is merely the scenario of conditions which contain the causal factors which create the problem as a result of discrepancies and conflicts between the desirable ideal of states and and processes, and the reality of states and processes. This can apply to natural or cultural ecosystems, ecosystem hierarchies, or to the intellectual, political, social and material sectors of the ecosystems. Situation and problem must never be confused or mingled; a clear-cut distinction is essential for the logical development of any project plan, execution and assessment, particularly for a convincing and plausible report on work done and results achieved. In writing about the situation you should attempt to ease the reader into your work. Don't expect them to be as familiar with the setting as you are. Summarize previous work. Think of the most important and pertinent references to cite and use them. Don't be tempted to fill the introduction with a large number of obscure references. Problem Remember that a situation is not a problem per se but creates the conditions for a problem to arise. The problem statement defines the specific problem(s) which the paper is about to answer or the research project to solve. The problem definition is a pivotal point in the logical structure of the thought process. Therefore, the problem(s) must be prominently stated in a precise, candid and succinct manner, it must be coherently and comprehensively argued and evidenced. Make sure that the problem statement leads logically from the situation. Question The overall goal(s) and the specific target(s)/objective(s) of the project must be succinctly and precisely defined with adequate reference to the problem statement. This is immediately followed by an equally precise and succinct statement of the hypotheses that are to be tested. For example, the problem statement: Recent analysis of pre-1990 land use data revealed that there were fundamental effort in the data used in the 1990s, could lead to goals related to assessing implications of incorrect data collection, reasons why the data were incorrect, and how this might be rectified in the future. Response State the objective (or the hypothesis) of your study. Is it a logical response to the question? What did you do to try and answer the question? In other words, summarise in a sentence or two the investigation or study that you carried out to obtain an answer. State your main message. Check that it is a response to the most important question provoked by the problem.
Materials and methods The objective of this section is to give the reader a report of how the work was carried out. This part gives the necessary but brief description of the materials involved or used, followed by a critical review of possible methodological options, discussion of benefits and problems of the various options, and the reason for the specific choice and precise description of the essential features of the selected methodology. Customary and common place methods of statistical tests, data collecting and processing, laboratory procedures must not be described in detail, but should be briefly identified. It is important to maintain brevity in this section and remember that your audience is your peers, not someone with no scientific knowledge. Write with your audience in mind. Remember to include descriptions of relevant and essential details of the progress of work, problems and experiences in data collection and processing, particularly where problems have occurred.
Results The important point to be aware of in this section is that results should be succinctly described but not assessed and discussed yet. The text should contain adequate reference to tables and figures that contain all information, including statistical parameters, required to support the stated results as well as inform and convince the reader, but not more. Do not be tempted to report all your results and analysis. This is a common mistake amongst novice authors but one that journal editors will spot straight away. If you include unnecessary data, tables and analysis it will appear that you are not focusing on the main theme of your research, and maybe that you don't really know what you are writing about. Referees and journal editors expect brevity and if you include every piece of analysis that you carried out your paper will not get very far. Refer back to your key statement and consider which results are needed to justify your conclusions. Be brutal with your pruning and remember the word limit on the article set by the journal.
Discussion In this section the results should be critically analysed, compared and discussed in relation to the originally stated problem, hypotheses, and methods. The results are usually contributing new knowledge which should be compared with the previous knowledge stated in the Situation. The critical comparison may vindicate the results, but also reveal deficiencies and contradictions, which is scientifically of equal value. The critical discussion and evaluation of any accord, contradiction or knowledge gap and the assessment of their relevance and probable consequences for the science and art of environmental management is an indispensable step before proceeding to the Conclusion.
Conclusions Opening paragraph This section gives a precise and summarising statement of the results and, if relevant, the prospects for application of the results in the various political, social and technical arenas are assessed. In addition, if appropriate, proposals for further actions in research, management and politics are made. The section should begin with a clear statement of the principal findings. Authors commonly make the mistake of hiding this message deep within the Conclusions section. Don't. Your readers will want to be hit with the main findings in the first line. Of course, the conclusion of your research will be more complicated than can be explained in one line but think of it rather like an advertising 'strap line'. It conveys enough information to get the reader to carry on reading. The next few sentences should elaborate, if necessary, on the opening statement. But, again, make sure you are brief and stick to the point. Putting your conclusions in context Your findings might appear important and significant to you but you need to prove to the reader, and the scientific community, that they are worthy of note. This means setting them in context of previous work. This is the most common mistake made by inexperienced authors or those who really haven't grasped what is required in peer-reviewed science publishing. Carrying out an experiment isn't enough. To be honest, that can be undertaken by many people with little knowledge or understanding of your subject. If you are a scientist who is worthy of publishing then you should know your subject and be able to describe your research within it. That means discussing your outputs in relation to relevant literature. What do your results mean when compared with others? If you can't do this then your paper will be rejected by any major journal. If this is the case then you should think seriously about why you carried out the research. Implications of your findings The implications of your findings should be discussed within a realistic framework. Don't exaggerate the importance of your results. Journal editors will see this and consider you as an unreliable author. Be honest. However much you might like to feel your results should be implemented it is important to indicate to the reader the problems you foresee in their adoption. On the other hand, don't be afraid to discuss the potential implications of your results if you can argue your case. Need for further research This is a section that authors commonly misuse. It is not an excuse to justify further research funds to be spent on you or your work. Neither should it be considered a means of explaining why your work appeared to produce no results of any note. Instead it should be used to highlight the important shortcomings of your work that could be addressed by further research, or to indicate directions that further work could take.
